
Class ..Ar& i 

Book 

Copyright N"-:: ^ 

CDEflSlGIlT DSPOSm 



STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

By Thomas Woody, Ph.D. 
University of Pennsylvania 

Early Quaker Education in Pennsylvania. Published by Teachers 

College, Columbia University. 287 pages. Price $3 . 00. 

Furstenschulen in Germany after the Reformation. George Banla, 
Publisher, Menasha, Wisconsin. 46 pages. Price $1.00. 



tirii* dolUgM* f*t»» 

GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY 

MENASHA, WISCONSIN 

1920 



DEC 2 



l^cO 



INSCRIBED TO 
WiLHELMINE LaWTON WoODY 



FURSTENSCHULEN IN 

GERMANY AFTER 
THE REFORMATION 



By 
THOMAS WOODY 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 



^/^1?^l 

.V'' 



Copyright, 1920, 

BY 

Thomas Woopy 



g)CU605128 



PREFACE 

The advent of the Reformation brought with it many- 
new conceptions. Some of the most important dealt with 
the problem of education, its necessity for all citizens, and 
the duty of the state, principality, or city to provide edu- 
cational facilities for all of its members. 

Among the firmly established educational institutions, 
which clearly bear the impress of the Reformation's influence, 
were the Furstenschulen. These were first founded in 
Saxony, but were modelled on earUer Klosterschulen in 
Wiirttemberg. From a study of either of these types the 
student may gain a knowledge of the practical influence of 
the Reformation, which was working towards the establish- 
ment of a state system of public education. 

This monograph is prepared as collateral reading for 
students of the history of education, for the reason that the 
subject is only briefly presented in text books. 

I am indebted to my colleagues. Professors Frank P. 
Graves and John H. Minnick, for helpful suggestions. 

Thomas Woody. 
University of Pennsylvania, 
April, 1920. 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Chapter I Educational Reform Spirit in Germany 1 

II Schools of Wurttemberg and Saxony 11 

III Provisions of the Orclmmg of 1580 17 

IV Rules Governing Conduct 34 

V Summary: Later Development 41 

Bibliography 45 

Index 46 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

School buildings at Meissen Frontispiece 

Specimens of manuscript of Luther and Melanchthon 5 

Title-page from the Kirchenordnung of 1580 13 

Philip Melanchthon 15 

Reproduction of the first page of the regulations for the three 

Fiirstenschulen 19 



FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 
AFTER THE REFORMATION 

CHAPTER I 
Educational Reform Spirit in Germany 

On coming to a study of the Filrstenschulen of Germany 
of the sixteenth century one finds many schools that were 
similar to them in a great many respects. In this period of Great variety 
the Reformation many different types of schools are to be established 
found which sprang up here and there, and whose character 
was determined in great measure by local conditions. But 
in addition to that which seems to be characteristic of the 
particular locality alone, there are also to be seen in all of 
them the decided stamp of the Reformation, the great empha- 
sis on religion and the authority of the church. Just to men- 
tion a few of the various types, there were Partikular schools, 
Latin schools, Stadt schools, writing schools, and a number 
of others which it is not necessary to mention here. Only 
those will be considered that had a very close relation to the 
church and bear a striking similarity to those established by 
the Princes. It is quite natural to inquire first from what 
source these schools sprang, from what authority, ecclesias- 
tical or secular, and by what means they were supported. 

The church schools before the Reformation were estab- oiginand 
lished and maintained by the means of the Catholic Church. S^schoois 
The Latin schools of the cities, however, were estabhshed by 
the secular head of the cities and were supported almost 
entirely at public expense. The German writing schools, 



2 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

mostly private, were almost entirely dependent on the tuition 
of students for their revenues. The two last mentioned 
served largely for business purposes and it was therefore 
quite natural that those who expected to derive benefit 
from them should be required to pay certain stipulated 
amounts of money. The church schools, on the other hand, 
were educating men for the service of the church and could 
not justly demand money of those who were expecting to 
enter her service as soon as they had finished the work given 
in the schools. 

The advent of the Reformation, however, brought about 
a change in this state of affairs, for those who were to be 
educated were no longer merely the servants of the church; 
and, furthermore, there was a rapid growth of the conception 
Changing ^^^* ®^^^ sliould bc cducatcd in so far as his or her native 
oftheTcope endowments made it possible. How was it to be accom- 
of education piighcd? This chaugc in the thought of a people to a belief 
in public education was evidenced in the numerous Kirchen- 
und Schulordnungen that were issued, in which it was pro- 
vided that the various schoolmasters, as soon as they would 
incorporate religious instruction in their work, should receive 
reimbursement for their services from the public treasury. 
Thus the Braunschweiger Kirchenordnung of 1528 stated 
that the German schoolmasters should receive an amount 
yearly from the treasury for instruction in religious affairs. 
Schoolmistresses also were to receive the same. In like 
manner by the Pommer'sche Kirchenordnung of 1535 the 
schoolmaster was authorized to receive pay from the city 
treasury. 

The reason for this tendency is quite clear. It is easily 
understood that as long as money was required of the student 



EDUCATIONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 6 

in order to pay the master, to keep up buildings, and for 
similar purposes, many were necessarily debarred from edu- 
cation on account of pecuniary circumstances. This fact payment of 
was realized, more and more, during the course of the six- civii 
teenth century, not only in the vernacular but also in the 
Latin schools. The first children to receive free education 
were those native to the town, and later those from other 
towns were granted the privilege. The Leisniger Kirchen- 
ordnung of 1523 forbade the master to receive money 
from the children native to the town, and that of Halle of 
1526 provided that the teachers should be paid from the 
common treasury in order that the citizens might not be 
unduly burdened in sending their children to school. It 
makes a great difference whether the citizen pays money to 
the teacher in the form of taxes or whether he pays it to the 
teacher directly when he has to send the child to school. 
In the latter case it may be hard for him to decide to educate 
his child properly ; in the former the decision is made for him 
and there is nothing to do but send the child to school. 
Thus we find this tendency increasing until, in 1561 by the 
Ordjiunq of the Gymnasium at Stralsund it was forbidden to Frceeduca- 

. , ., , „ , tion for the 

receive money from the native children of the town and native chil- 
dren first 

everything was to be done that would make attendance at 
the schools as easy as possible. Again in the Ordnung of the 
Pedagogium at Heidelberg in 1565 it was forbidden to require 
any payment of money. 

But the question naturally arises, when it is seen that so 
many of the Ordnungen state that no money is to be required 
of the student, whence did the means for the maintenance of 
these schools come? The Catholic Church had means for 
such things in great measure, which had accumulated as 



Church 



4 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

the result of the Church's doctrine of "good works," whereby 
Source of One might vitaHze his faith by works and lay up for himself 

income in . . ,,., 

Catholic rewards in eternity by making gifts towards the establish- 
ment of institutions such as hospitals and orphans' homes for 
the poor, cathedrals, churches, and schools. But with the 
advent of the new doctrine, that one might be saved by faith, 
there was naturally a weakening of the former. 

However, the new Evangelical faith was not for a long 
time without works, as is well known, and is adequately 
shown in the following pages. The lack of schools of the 
Evangelical faith was certainly not due to the teachings and 
beliefs of Reformation leaders, as is shown in the numerous 
letters and addresses by Luther — especially in his Letter to 
the Mayors and Aldermen of all Cities of Germany in behalf 
of Christian Schools. 

In view of all this, it becomes councilmen and magistrates to 
watch over j'outh with unremitting care and diligence. For since 
their city, in all its interests, life, honor, and possessions, is com- 
mitted to their faithful keeping, they do not deal justly with their 
trust, before God and the world, unless they strive their utmost, 
night and day, to promote the city's increase and prosperity. 
Now a city's increase consists not alone in heaping up great treas- 
ure, in building solid walls or stately houses, or in multiplying 
artillery, and munitions of war; nay, where there is a great store 
of this, and yet folos with it, it is all the worse and the greater loss 
for the city. But this is the best and the richest increase, pros- 
perity, and strength of the city, that it shall contain a great number 
of polished, learned, intelligent, honorable, and well-bred citizens; 
who, when they have become all this, may then get wealth and put 
it to good use.i 

Not only did Luther and Melanchthon so advise, but their 
influence is soon noted in the various Ordnungen issued 

1 Painter, Luther on Educatio7i, pp. ISO f. 



2 I 

< y. 



! 

S 



X 













EDUCATIONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 5 

widely throughout Germany. In 1535 according to the 
Pommer^sche Kirchenordnung the parsons were advised to 
tell people that they should make their wills and all bequests 
toward the establishment and the maintenance of schools. 
But to delay the establishment of schools until institu- 
tions could be founded was out of the question, and espe- 
cially so, since at that time people were not as willing to give 
toward their foundation as they had been during the Middle 
Ages. It was therefore necessary that the church — Evan- 
gelical — and the state seek means thereunto in different _ 
° . The Evan- 

channels. When one considers the close relation which had geiicai 

sources of 

existed between the church and state in times before the means for 
Reformation, it is not strange that the secular authorities 
seized the church property; nay, it would have been strange 
if the state had not seized the property of the church for its 
own purposes. At any rate the fact is that we find stated in 
the various Kirchenordnungen of Leisnig, Stralsund, Halle, 
Braunschweig, Liibeck, MoUen, Hanover, Pommern, and 
many others, that schools shall be organized and teachers' 
salaries be paid out of the common fund or treasury, into 
which had flowed the income from the ecclesiastical proper- 
ties. At first this revenue was all that was expected to be 

See photographic reproduction of manuscript of Luther and Mel- 
anchthon on opposite page. 

S.D. Reverende vir et cariss{ime) f rater. Saepe cogitavi futurum 
esse aliquando hoc quod accidit, ut prindpes, (politica sapientia con- 
troversias ita toller ent). 

Bene etfeliciter vale die 4 Augusti. Philippus Melanchthon. 

G(ratiam) et pacem in Christo. Respondi tandem, mi Bucere, 
Helvetiorum Uteris: quas Smalcaldi reddidisti. Excusabis moram 
nieam. Ut qui scias mihi cadaveri praeter morbos et senectutem (impositas 
esse curas ecclesiae nostrae). Ipso die S. Nicolai, 1537. 

T. Martinus Luther. 
(From Jortin's Life of Erasjiius.) 



6 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

used by the Evangelical churches, but, as will soon be 
pointed out, they were not long in making use of all church 
properties. 

Over and above all those properties that were absolutely 
necessary for its continuance the Catholic Church had also 

le property 

f thecath- amassed a great deal of other property — especially to be 

ihc Church *= . . . . 

noted was that consistmg of monasteries and nunneries. 
Now concerning the money that had accrued from the prop- 
erties above mentioned, there had been no question about 
the proper place and use for that; but about the disposition 
of monasteries and nunneries there was a difference of 
opinion. The monks and nuns, in many cases, had ceased to 
frequent them, since the Catholic Church had been cut off 
in the Evangelical countries, and the property was thus left 
almost without a master. The nobles and counts, in many 
places, and also the cities in the several regions, hastened to 
the'Noiks ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ property towards the satisfaction of their 
own needs. Much of it thus seized was, no doubt, devoted 
to the aid and support of churches and schools, but quite a 
considerable portion was used for personal purposes.^ It 
was due to the interference of the Evangelical church leaders 
that the major part of the property was not lost, so far as 
the schools and churches were concerned. Luther was one 
of the first leaders who demanded that the cloisters be again 
made to serve as schools, as they had done before. To this 
Efforts of end he wrote and delivered addresses in great number and 
^BaveUm especially did he address himself to the secular princes and 
The'uL^of counts who had in their power to do with the property very 

schools 

2 Attention is called to the uses made of the church properties in 
England, after the separation brought about under Henry VIII. Vide 
Leach, pp. 58 ff. 



EDUCATIONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 7 

much as they pleased. The results of his work and that of 
others may be seen in the schools that were established by 
the princes in various places. 

There is no doubt that a great impulse was given to state 
control of education at this time. The princes had seized 

, . Church prop- 

the property outright and now there arose no uncertam erty restored 

Til • ,. 1 • • 1 ,, to the use of 

demand that they use it for the original purpose — schools, schools in 

some cases 

In many of the Kirchenordnungen it was demanded that 
even the property which had already been used for other 
purposes should be restored, and that close official oversight 
should be kept to see that it was used for the benefit of 
church and school. Examples of this may be found in the 
Sdchsische Visitationsartikel of 1533, the Pommer' sche 
Kirchenordnung 1535, and the Braunschweig-Liinehurg 
Kirchenordnung of 1564. 

As to the justice of the seizure and use of church prop- 
erty, it would be difficult to maintain the negative. Even 
in the cases where the secular princes had seized and used 
it for the affairs of state, it was justifiable (unless used for 
purely personal ends) ; and still more was it justifiable where 
the funds had been used for the establishment of schools of 
the Evangelical church. Why? Because the property 
which had been accumulated in the country by the Catholic p ^y 
Church had come from the people themselves; it had not peo°p"fre*° 
come from some outside source but was the result of their f^gf/f^-tif 
own toil and therefore it was right that they should use it to 
their best advantage. 

But the justification of these acts is not necessary here; 
suffice it to say that the property was taken over and certain 
schools were established. Among the secular heads there 
were some who maintained the same position as that of the 



8 



FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 



Some secular 
heads agreed 
that monas- 
teries be 
used for 
school 
purposes 



Legal steps 

taken by 

secular heads 



Supervision 
of schools 
by the Cath- 
olic Church 
before the 
Reformation 



Superficial 

nature of 

school 

supervision 



Evangelical church leaders. Mertz quotes from the words 
of the Saxon Counsellor, Dr. Komerstadt, wherein he said, 
concerning the means for the establishment of Fursten- 
schulen: 

Thus we might ordain the establishment of schools that the 
children of poor people might be well brought up and learned, 
some outside as well as those within our own land. . . . 
The cloisters were founded for that same purpose and if we 
can now turn them to that purpose again, we are sure of the 
approval of justice and of God. 

The above was made in form of a motion and was carried. 
Only two years later (1544) the Emperor himself gave the 
Protestants the legal right to regard as their own the church 
property which they found within their own territories. 

Something should be said concerning the management 
and oversight of schools prior to the Reformation, as it will 
aid materially in showing how it came about that Count 
Moritz and his successors in Saxony had such an important 
part in the organization and oversight of the Fiirstenschulen. 
During the Middle Ages the oversight of schools had been, 
almost without exception, in the hands of the authorities of 
the church and their underhngs — for the feudal state was 
not much concerned with the affairs of education. Only in 
the case of the Stadtschulen, which were established by the 
civic community, were the powers of oversight of the bishops 
and other ecclesiastics nearly excluded. But a thorough 
and well-ordered management and oversight of schools was 
never accomplished in the Middle Ages. The Visitatores 
of the Middle Ages were messengers of the Pope, or other high 
church officials, and their visitations were very irregularly 
made. There was no organized inspection which watched 



EDUCATONAL REFORM SPIRIT IN GERMANY 9 

minutely the affairs of all schools ; but some special ones were 
singled out and irregular visits were made to the others. 

With the increasing influence of the Reformation there 
may be seen a distinctly new tendency, namely, towards a 
rather universal inspection of schools. This extensive Thorough 

... 1 1 cc • -11 1 1 nature of the 

Visitation was a thorough anair as will be shown later by the newsuper- 

1 -1 • -1 • • 1 • vision 

mmute details given concerning the organization and inspec- 
tion of the Fiirstenschulen at Grimma, Pforta, and Meissen. 
They were no mere formality, but on the contrary indicated 
the beginning of a strong tendency toward central authority 
in such matters. In all of the Schul-und Kirchenordnungen 
of the sixteenth century we feel the force of this ever-increas- 
ing tendency toward central control and oversight. The 
question whether the state or the church should have this 
complete control — which cannot be discussed here — was 
fought out bitterly, the church maintaining that it should be 
the successor to the realm of the Catholic Church. The final 
result was a more equitable distribution in which both the 
state and the church were closely related in the management church and 

'' ° state unite 

of school affairs. Luther himself believed that the church to deal with 

the affairs 

needed the aid of the state and, without it, could not hope to of schools 
carry on its work. But in later years he regretted the extent 
to which the interests of the secular and spiritual institutions 
had become united, fearing that as a result "both of them 
would go to the devil." Nothing further need be said here 
about this phase of the situation, but in the next chapter we 
shall note some instances in which the secular and ecclesias- 
tical authorities did labor together in the establishment and. 
direction of schools. 



10 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

SUMMARY 

The Reformation brought a new conception of education 
which, in connection with local conditions, resulted in the 
development of various types of schools. According to 
Luther and Melanchthon, two of the stronger protagonists, 
education should be compulsory, without cost to the individ- 
ual, and a duty of the civil authorities. Through the 
energetic endeavors of these men, and others associated 
with them, this educational creed was spread throughout the 
German principalities. Their influence may be seen in the 
numerous Schulordnungen that were issued. Schools were 
often supported by the revenue from property that had 
belonged to the Catholic Church. In 1544 the Emperor 
himself gave assent to the appropriation of such property 
for the use of schools. The establishment of close super- 
vision, in the ease of schools here discussed, was of great 
importance. The church and state sought to co-operate in 
affairs concerning the welfare of education. 



CHAPTER II 

Schools of Wurttemberg and Saxony 

The Fiirstenschulen estabhshed by Count Moritz of 
Saxony, in 1543, were organized on a plan very similar to that g^^^^^ 
of schools set up at a slightly earlier date in Wurttemberg. fhooia simi- 

r^ o ^ ~ lar to earlier 

As the latter, as a matter of fact, furnished the model after 1?''.°°'^ '". 

' ' _ Wurttemberg 

which the Saxon schools were fashioned it may be well to 
devote some time to them. 

The first Kirchenordnung for Wiirttemberg was drawn 
up by Brenz in 1535. According to this original plan one 
lesson per day, taken from the Scriptures, was to be given 
to all the inmates of the cloister. The stipulations of this 
plan, however, were not in operation for any length of time, jf/°f^„'';. 
and only thirteen of the cloisters became schools. For these 
thirteen cloisters a second Ordnung was drawn up by Brenz 
in 1556, under Duke Christopher, according to which 
Klosterschulen were established at Adelberg, Alpirsbach, 
Anhausen, Bebenhausen, Blaubeuren, Denkendorf, St. 
Georgen, Herrenalb, Hirsau, Konigsbrunn, Lorch, Maul- 
bronn, and Murrhardt. In these Klosterschiden, or cloister 
schools, boys of fourteen or fifteen years of age were admitted 
for a period of three years, after the expiration of which they 
were to continue their studies at the University of Tubingen. 

Among other Ordnungen for the Klosterschulen may be 
mentioned especially those of 1559 and 1582. According to 



12 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

these a differentiation was made between the lower Kloster- 
Laterdif- ^^^^^^^"-called also grammatical Klosterschulen—whkh, 
ferentiated with reference to the studies, were comparable to the lower 
Latin schools, and the higher Klosterschulen which had 
practically the same significance as the Gymnasien. The 
former, the lower, received poor boys from twelve to fourteen 
years of age who were sufficiently equipped to enter the 
fourth year class of a Partikularschule. For entrance to the 
higher Klosterschulen it was necessary to have standing which 
would enable one to enter the fifth class of a Partikularschule. 
These regulations are found to be almost identical with those 
Regulations °^ ^^^ FurstenschuUn, stated in the Ordnung of 1580. After 
^"^ and pro- ^^^^^^^S ^^^ courso of the lower Klosterschulen the students 
motion either entered the Padagogium or went to the higher Kloster- 
schulen and from thence to the University of Tubingen. 
According to the Ordnung of 1559 there were arrangements 
made whereby a student who passed certain examinations at 
Stuttgart was admitted to a free place in the schools. The 
pupils announced their candidacy for the examinations and, 
having passed, were placed on a waiting list, from which 
they were selected for the places according to their rank. 
Places were filled regularly as they became vacant. The 
Ordnung of 1559 provided that certain very bright children 
Provision ^^^^^ Complete their entire professional training in the 
sSs" higher Klosterschulen, while, according to the Ordnung of 
1582, the professional study had to be completed at the 
University of Tubingen. 

The discipline was exceptionally strict at all of these 

Discipline schools, and practically the same as will be found a little 

later in the Filrstenschulen of Saxony. The clothing was to 

be cut according to the cloistral style. In all the reUgious 




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rafftn m'JJdntigoi/by^arggt 
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folc^tmaKfmmf^ratitangtt/gffealtfnwrrlitnJol, 



' 5 




8 o. 



Cumpriuilegio Ele>Aons Saxoni.r. 



The title-page of the Kirchenordnung of Saxony, ij^sued in 1580 



SCHOOLS OF WURTTEMBERG AND SAXONY 13 

service and preparation they kept continually in mind the 
future calhng of the student. The students in these Kloster- 
schulen, in contrast to those of the Fiirstenschulen, were all 
bound to pursue the study of theology. Teachers in the 
schools were unmarried. 

As we pass now to a discussion of the Fiirstenschulen, let 
us note the manj^ points of similarity between them and the 
Klosterschulen we have just mentioned. The former, also schuienin 
called Landesschulen, were first established in Saxony. They, 
like their prototypes, were founded and endowed with the 
possessions of secularized monasteries and were, in a majority 
of cases, established in the same old institutions, the cloisters. 
They were not established by and for the cities, but for the 
state and the church. Unlike the Klosterschulen of Wiirttem- 
berg, they did not require that the students who shared their 
benefits should be bound to pursue a course in theology. 
Nobles were admitted, and also poor boys that, otherwise, 
would have had no opportunity to get an education. This 
must surely have changed the ideas of some poor parents 
about sending their boys to school. The schools were con- 
ducted very much like monasteries. The food was plain 
and the boys were kept closely in cells when not at class or 
having a free period. Discipline was very strict and even 
the cut of clothes might have reminded one of the monks 
who formerly inhabited the cells. 

The Saxon Landes- or Fiirstenschulen form, as has already 
been stated, an almost exact imitation of the Wiirttemberg ^re^m'^nfo?" 
Klosterschulen. They bear a different name, for the reason of*church^ 
that they were established for the students of the whole ^nd state 
country and were to prepare young men for the service of 
both church and state. Instruction, lodging and all care 



14 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

were given the student who was poor but capable — the same 
as provided in the schools of Wurttemberg. Children 
living outside the state, if admitted at all, were required to 
pay a stipulated amount. For entrance to the elementary- 
subjects, all individuals had to be from twelve to fourteen 
years of age. 

The establishment of these schools was the result of the 
Landesordnung issued by Count Moritz of Saxony on May 21, 
1543. Duke Heinrich of Saxony died August 18, 1541 and 
was followed by his son Moritz, who continued to push for- 
ward the work of his father in that he extended the second 
Visitation to the realms of the Counts Schwarzburg, Stolberg, 
and Hohnstein.^ Further, on May 21, 1543 Moritz sent 
forth two mandates concerning weighty matters of church 
and state. These mandates were known as Landesord- 
nungen, though they were similar in nature to the Kirchen- 
ordnungen and dealt with the affairs of both churches and 
schools. They were printed for publication by Nickal 

Further acts Wolraben in Leipzig, 1543, and constituted the plan for the 
organization and government of the schools until 1580, when, 
according to a new Ordnung, they were reorganized. The 
status of the schools under the instrument of 1580 will be 
considered in later pages. 

Returning momentarily to the year 1543, let us notice 
the general spirit and purpose of the mandates of Moritz of 
Saxony. They bear a striking resemblance to the words of 

Pur ose of admouitiou offered by Luther. 

the Landes- Realizing that for the interests of law and order and also for all 

ordnung of •' a , i i c i 

1543 Christian teaching and action, it is necessarj' that the youth of the 

land be brought up to the praise of God and in all obedience, and 

1 Vide Sehling, Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts. 




PHILIPPUS MELANCHTHON 

1479-1 or)0 
Praeceplor Gennaniae 



SCHOOLS OF WtJRTTEMBERG AND SAXONY 15 

that they be instructed in all the arts and languages and especially 
5 , in the Holy Scriptures, and in order that as the years go on, we 
may not lack in learned people to be servants in the church and 
state, it is our purpose that from the property of certain cloisters 
and institutions of like nature, we should establish three schools, 
namely at Meissen, Pforta, and Merseburg.^ 

These schools were to be fully equipped. The entire 
meaning of this "full equipment" we are not able to deter- Proviaions 

11 c • 1 1 c 11 for these 

mme exactly, but a part of it at least was to be as follows: schools 
for the one at Meissen there was provided a Master, two 
Bachelors or socii, a Kantor and sixty boys; the one at 
Merseburg, a Master, two Bachelors, a Kantor, and seventy 
boys ; the one at Pforta, a Master, three Bachelors, a Kantor, 
and one hundred boys. The Lehrplan is not given but the 
one outlined for 1580 will be considered in detail. 

Among the men, besides those who actually did the 
organizing and those who issued the "orders" for the Fiirsten- 
schulen, perhaps no one exerted a greater influence than did ' 
Joachim Camerarius. He was born at Bamberg, April 12, 
1500, and became Professor of the Greek language at Erfurt 
in 1521. Then, after a short stay in Wittenberg, he went, 
at the desire of Melanchthon, as a teacher of Greek at the 
new Gymnasium Niirnberg. In 1535 he went as a teacher 
of Greek to the University of Tubingen and from thence was 
called to the University of Leipzig. From his position here 
he exerted a great influence on the formation of the Saxon 
Fiirstenschulen. He was a close friend of Melanchthon and 
Luther and cherished similar ideas about the founding of 
schools; through him may be seen, in part, their influence on 
the schools of Saxony. 

2 Mertz, Das Schulwesen der Deutschen Reformation, 189. 



16 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

The next chapter will deal with the reorganization of the 
three schools as was indicated by the Ordnung issued by 
Augustus in 1580. 

SUMMARY 

The Fiirstenschulen of Saxony were similar to the Kloster- 
schulen established in Wurttemberg. These "cloister 
schools" admitted boys of fourteen years and gave them 
three years' preparation for the University of Tubingen. 
Regulations for entrance were rigid; those who passed certain 
examinations were admitted to free tuition. Disciphne was 
strict. Students were to continue the study of theology, in 
contrast to the plan of the Fiirstenschulen which prepared 
men for the service of church and state. These Fiirsten- 
schulen were the immediate fruits of the decree of 1543, 
issued by Count Moritz. In this document, which gives 
detailed provisions for the schools, there is found a senti- 
ment similar to that expressed by Luther at an earlier date. 
Schools were organized upon this plan until 1580. 



CHAPTER III 
Provisions of the Ordnung of 1580 

This chapter will be devoted to a detailed consideration 
of the Ordnung of 1580, which was issued by Augustus. 
This rather antiquated document begins with a very reveren- 
tial paragraph concerning Count Moritz of Saxony. He it 
was that issued the order of 1543 which gave life to the three 
schools.^ Realizing that the same reasons which caused him 
to issue those orders still existed, and that it was the duty of 
the ruling Prince to take care of the affairs of schools and 
churches. Count August caused Ordnungen to be issued for 
the schools of Meissen, Grimma, and Pforta, much in the 
same manner as the Ordiiungen issued for the Partikidar- 
schulen and the universities. 

Ordnungen, reasons the Count, are necessary, not because 
good and honorable people do not know what to do, and th^L'suance 
what is right and proper to do, but because human nature is ° ' """*^" 
weak and one can very easily forget. Therefore, it is best 
to have always at hand certain rules and regulations, written 
out, in order that no one may deviate from that which all 
will admit is the best. When one considers, later, the mul- 
titude of small details which were outlined, one can easily 
understand that the Count reasoned rightly, for it would be 

1 The schools referred to are those at Grimma, Meissen, and Pforta. 
The school which, according to the Ordming of 1543, was to have been 
located at Merseburg was finally placed at Grimma. This assertion is 
substantiated by the Ordnung of 1580. 



18 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

difficult to follow all of them without a written list of direc- 
tions. 

First may be noted the general recommendations con- 
cerning the office of the preceptors. The schoolmaster is to 
recommen- realize that he is not only in the place of a teacher but also 
that of a father to the boys. It is his duty to awaken the 
power and knowledge of the Holy Spirit in the boys that it 
"may serve as a light to their discipline." Furthermore, 
they must continually keep in mind their own weaknesses 
and make continual prayer to God that they may not labor 
alone for themselves but for the welfare of the boys who are 
intrusted to their care. They must remember the words of 
Christ that "he whoso vexes one of the least of these, who 
believes on me, the same would be better off if a millstone 
Duties of were hanged about his neck and he were drowned in the 

spiritual 

nature deepest sea." The preceptor must also keep himself under 
a most strict control, even as he does those under him, in 
order that he may set a good example and never be guilty of 
that for which he would punish a pupil. Thus they shall 
always be ready to rule among the pupils, maintaining their 
authority, but exercising it with all discretion in the best 
interests of the boys. They shall always conduct themselves 
in a friendly manner towards their pupils and not indulge 
themselves to rule by fear, for that will cause the boys to 
hate study; and the duty and purpose of teachers is to cause 
a keen interest and love for study. 

They shall teach only that which is useful and shall be 
„ . , careful not to try to teach too much at once — which is very 

Nature of -^ "^ 

instruction good advice — tliough he does make a rather amusing com- 
parison between the mind and a jug which, when it is filled 
too rapidly, will overflow at the mouth. Preceptors are 




CLXIIII Scfiulortiuma, 

^on Dnfern ^xmn ||iir(leiv 

fc6ulcn / ^u itdi\\Jm / )^f<^x«x/ P»t> (Bninmc. 

5l((f) t)em trciilatib bet ^ocf)c\cboi:uc -gurfl / 0c« 
1^ bi^pri(j/>;(rliOt^ jii (:?iid)fcii/ 1(. (J'f)iirti5r(Vt>iifcr f" r(itiiD> 
p lKl;cr iicl'tr "XruDcr/ (5f)ri|tiiiiltcr vnt> fttioif r ^cPcc^fiiis/ 
"^vpn rc!i uerlcPiatcn tU(J(tfrii t'linD (:rfifftv)ui(ru Dreij 
©itiilcii ^11 ^^iciiTeii/ Pfoitii viiD liVimuu / miffj^crid^tct / Cmrirv 
mil Pic }ii<?(iiP't \u ^^3intcs clirc vnp nil kicf)infaiii cr^o»3cii/ iii Dm 
Cpniibcii mi) auiiiicii/ vn Pciiii fiaiiciiiliit) iii P<r ^ttlujdi S(()rifft 
gclcrct iMiP t)iU(rnif ifct iccrDc aiiff cag cs nut P<r jfit an tUrc^tiiDio 
iicrii iMiDaiiDcmaclcrtcii Iciitcn ni wifcni I'aiiPcii iiicbt imm^djjc 
louniit / I'lilJcii 1VK (6 iiicbt alkiiif, iPie^ic iiii )nic fcll'lJ (Jhrifilid) viiD 
rcol iicnicint, bcp t>cr be f(l)cl)(iuii V(ri>rtiiuna allcrPm^s Hdbcii, fon* 
Can / lucil auct) bci) Cicn|cIt>cn4i(l(rIci)ini|';braiicf>/iMiorCnuni^ fc^I 
t>i!Ci mangel Purcb Pic jiinoifi vnP bicuorii i^c()a(t(ii( Vifitationcs bt* 
finiPcu iDcrPcn/ l)abcii xvw glciclKr (jcftalt, ipic t»cp vn|crcii l<imicifi» 
tctcii iMiP particular Scf)iilcii/auct) Pi)H'alla nmipcnPigc pcrbc|tf> 
rung fur<5cnonimcn/»iiPParau(TPiirrl)gclcrtccrfarcn<l'cmc one ^» 
iPilTc CrPciiuiig< Pic tPir von nicnniijdt^ ^c^altcu ^abcn ivoKca H"' 
fen lalTcii / trie licrnacf) folgct. 

10(P |'cl--cn m fcincnjirciffcl, trciitiiDbcrfoU^cripnfcrorNiMti^ 
tiiitcrn(HinP|1ciei)cbaltcn/ C8 foUcn Pic bciufiaa )um Dc|}cn inigc^' 
irciiPct, viiP gcincinciii intij Pamit incrctlicf* gcpiciut fern, 

(ten Bcfiulcti ill ^alccn. 

j^^^J^^ S<;^vol abate autf«c()tt((clcu(/'bcfoutictd abctt»ic 
•y«^i^ <:r(f;ulinci|lcr (Vir |id) |cll'|} / c|»iic V(?rj»c((brickncorP' 
"Sfi^J^ ninuiiPiffcn/ttHiefictbuiiiipcr Uifftn follcn / icPocb ircil 
^"^^^'^ O ficfotpcl als anPcrtlciitaiKbl'tbiratbc incnfcfccn fcmPt/ 
vnP Pcnmacl) balp vcrc|c)Tcn fcMmcu/ toae ibncn aiiipts ()albcn gcbii' 
rcnnK^(btc,foi|iPcnmact)t>i>i>^«ij »piMhicriMClb(i)CinanPcriPof)» 
iicii fcHoi/ Pas man ciii gnpiffc ^orgcfchricbcnc j?ntc crPminoi5a> 
IC/ nac^ tPcU^cr allc Ping iv\i fief) ijrt'iirct v<mil}M ircrPcn ih^' 



The first page of the Schulordnung prepared in 1580 for the three 
Fiirstcnschulen 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 19 

warned not to stir their pupils up to anger, as the Apostle 
Paul admonished, and are positively commanded to take 
an active part in leading their pupils to God. Such admoni- 
tion was entirely natural at that time when a close relation 
existed between the church and the state and the religious No private 
note of the Reformation was still dominant. The growing mitted 
conception that education is for all alike is seen again in 
the fact that all teachers at the schools were forbidden to 
have private scholars and must devote all their time to the 
instruction of the regular pupils of the institution. 

About the office of the Rektor and his manifold duties 
many minute instructions were given. The Rektor was to 
be the recognized head, not only of the boys but also of the 
rest of the teaching staff; he must therefore rule over them, 
aid them, and consult with them concerning their problems. „ ,., . 

. , Qualification, 

In return their reverence is due hmi. In character he must duty, and 

certain im- 

be upright, honest, and God-fearing, and in addition must p^°f^'2ufT 
possess understanding and great cleverness. It was of 
special importance to be a good grammarian, having had 
much training in the practice of the Latin tongue; to this 
was added that he be very earnest in his work, but patient 
and even-tempered with his students. Back of this last 
statement there must have been some experience to make 
them believe that teachers who were masters of their subjects 
were not always the best teachers, for the reason that they 
did not realize the difficulties that confronted the beginner 
and became angry at small but persistent mistakes of the 
beginner when a hearty laugh would have done more good. 
As it has been mentioned before that the preceptors were to 
look after the spiritual welfare of the pupils, so also the 
Rektor was to look after the same for his subordinates, the 



the Rektor 



Lazy and 



20 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

teachers, — acting always in a fatherly way towards them. 

Furthermore, should he find some among them who were 

inefficient inattentive to the word of God or negligent of the welfare 

teachers to i • i o o 

be forced out of the pupils Under their charge, he was commanded to be 
so stern with them that they would soon wish to betake 
themselves from the school. Thus at every turn was shown 
the deep regard for the welfare of the student. 

His great authority over the boj^s and the members of 
the staff must be backed up by deep erudition; he must have 
read all the authors, laying great stress on the works of 

Tte previous QuintiUan, the great master of method in teaching, in order 
the Rektor to be able to help not only the boys but any of his teachers 
who get into difficulty. In modern parlance the Count 
wished that the Rektor might be a real swpervisor of the 
teachers, and to be that he himself had to be an expert in 
the subjects. Perhaps all these excellent recommendations 
were not carried out, but they are, at least, an indication of 
the tendency. They compare, on the whole, favorably with 
ideas of today, and it seems quite probable, if we may 
judge from reports, that the Saxon Prince investigated 
thoroughly to see that they were carried into effect. 

He was also admonished to be most careful about the 
boys who were admitted to the school. The requirements 

„ , , to which the entrant must measure up were very definite. 

Carefulness '^ ^ 

bo s'forlhf ^^ ^^y ^^^^ admitted who had not learned his grammar, 
school with special reference to etymology and syntax, or had failed 
to take the appropriate oath as to his fear of God, obedience 
to teachers, and zeal in the prosecution of his studies. As 
soon as the boys were accepted, their names were written in 
a book and the Rektor examined them in all ways known to 
him, to find out their relative standing and also to determme 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 



21 



their character, — whether they would do all in their power, 

or whether they could be urged to greater diligence and to know ea 

hence to greater achievement. The purpose of this close 

examination was, of course, to make possible a more exact 

classification according to the amount of training and their 

original capacities, in order that better instruction might 

be obtained. 

The lessons were to be held at regularly stated periods, 
as was elsewhere stated for the Partikularschulen; the school Periods of 
day was six hours in length. The Rektor was commanded 
to visit the classes for the purpose of supervising their work 
and to give examinations and see that the students' argu- 
menta were diligently corrected and rewritten in a certain The mant 
stipulated form of book, so that by comparison he could see ° ^"P'''^''" 
how much they had improved themselves, and for the further 
reason that he might have another check on the work of his 
teachers. If in this close examination he found a boy who 
had no ingenuity, cleverness or inclination to study, it was 
then his duty to have the parents informed, so that the boy 
could be removed as soon as possible and continue his study Some to i 
at another place, leaving his place in the Furstenschulen school 
to another who was more worthy of it. Ample time was 
allowed, of course, for the boys to show what they could do, 
and teachers were warned to be careful about deciding 
hastily that a boy was worthless. 

The Statuta were to be read every three or four months, 
or more often, if it was deemed necessary. If, in the teacher's 
opinion, the too frequent visits of boys to friends or relatives 
had been detrimental to their progress in school, they were staiuta 
admonished to refuse permission for these visits and excur- 
sions. In regard to other matters of discipline, which will 



22 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

be more fully presented later, the Rektor was to confer with 

the other members of the staff in much the same manner as 

Certain mis- in matters concerning the problems of instruction. In case 

demeanors . 

require the studcnts ran away from school or stayed away longer than 

intervention , -i i • <• • -i • ■, 

of visitatores the prescribed time, or for other similar misdemeanors, the 
Rektor must report the same to the Scholarchs and Visita- 
tores of the school and act in accord with their decision in the 
matter. Finally, he was forbidden to receive any student 
because of a request or recommendation on the part of 
friends; he, alone, must be the examiner and must accept 
only those who, under the examination given, gave promise 
of doing something worth-while in the future. 

With reference to the subordinate teachers and co- 
laborers, there was also considerable said in the way of 
and duties admonitiou and absolute demands. Unity among them- 
preceptors selvcs was a tiling to be cherished. They must aid the 
weaker among them. In case there were a few young 
teachers they were permitted to go to the Rektor for assist- 
ance, in order that they might not cease to learn, but con- 
tinue to grow. If any of them were obliged to leave the 
school for a time, they must make arrangement to have one 
of their colleagues take their place, so that the boj^s need 
not be the losers by reason of the teachers' absence. They 
were practically forbidden to leave save in unavoidable 
emergencies. Each teacher had appointed hours at which 
he must be in the school, and was forbidden to leave before 
the end of that period; furthermore, the Count admonished 
them not to allow their minds to wander, but to leave their 
household cares for the time being and give their entire 
attention to the work in school. For unruliness they were 
forbidden to strike the student, or pull his hair and ears. 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 23 

It was hoped that by close acquaintance with the boys the 
teachers would be able to rule by more gentle means, rigorous 
action being made unnecessary. By close acquaintance was 
not meant familiarity, but rather such close oversight of 
each boy that the teacher might know how he worked, his 
habits of living, of study, temperament, and so forth. Of 
these things the master must keep both written and mental 
note. In case of differences among themselves they must 
discuss the points on both sides of the question in a candid 
manner and, if necessary, allow their colleagues to decide 
the question on its merits. 

Among their most important duties is that of visiting the 
boys' rooms frequently to go through boxes and trunks, and 
to read the letters found in the same. They must admonish of rooms, 

. , letters and 

the disobedient and punish the boisterous and those who belongings 

., . . . , . m ' of the boys 

evidenced an evil disposition. In this most eincacious 
manner it is provided that the boys should never be left 
alone, for teachers were at all times present, both in the 
living quarters and in the study rooms. This plan, doubt- 
less, had many advantages, both for discipline and instruc- 
tion, for the teachers were in charge of the boys all of the 
time and were commanded to see that they always used Pupjimust 

. . use Latin 

Latin in their conversation, thus making it an instrument to at aii times 
be used in all life situations, not merely a plaything of the 
school room. 

Following this exegesis on the offices and duties of the 
teachers, Count Moritz indicated briefly the things that he 
considered necessary for a Christian school to do and the 
way in which they must be done. As stated in the plan a 
Christian school should accomplish three things. 



24 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

Purpose of 1- Instill a true faith and knowledge of God. 

^indicated ^^ ^^"^® mental and moral discipline. 

3. Teach the boys to become learned and reasoning men. 

The Christian teaching was placed first in importance 

and the wish expressed that the boys might at least take 

rdSo^ Christian principles from the school. The essence of 

instruction j.gijgJQyg instruction was to be found in the little book called 
the Catechism, which Luther recommended above all others 
for the use of pupils. Besides this there was much practice 
in the copying of passages from the Scriptures, and a great 
amount of reading. Special prayers were to be written 
which were to be used by the boys at certain specified times 
of the day — such as how to thank God, how to pray on 
rising in the morning, and on going to bed at night, what to 
say when going to class and at dinner, as well as what to say 
on coming from the same. The religious instruction wgis not 
limited to the special periods assigned to it, but in all the 
lessons the teachers were required to inculcate a knowledge 
of the Scriptures and fear of the transgression of God's laws. 
These many minute regulations seem strange when con- 
trasted with modern times, but at that time it was to be 

Formalism expected that things should be ordered in detail for the 
teristic individual, for the days of individual freedom had not come, 
though individuality in matters of thought was not at such 
a premium as it had been before the Reformation. As one 
reads these orders, one cannot help feeling, if he has been 
inclined to believe that with the Reformation there came a 
new freedom in religious affairs, that though there was a 
ripple on the surface here and there which indicated greater 
individuality in thought, yet there was still a great amount 
of formalism. We know, of course, that there must have 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 25 

been, because it is impossible to change the trend of human 
thought in a few years only. The people were still dependent 
in their thought life and needed guidance ; they had been led 
in all matters by the Church, and that having been removed, 
they naturally followed another. Perhaps that place was 
taken by Luther more than any other; his leadership and 
influence, at any rate, were very potent in the action of the 
princes and other secular heads who established schools, 
such as we are considering here, and outlined definite plans 
for their government. 

Considerable time was devoted to the subject of dis- Discipline 
cipline and training, the chief end being, as was stated 
above — to inculcate a fear of God in such a way that the 
pupil would not only be wise in the affairs of his church, but 
also show it in his life and actions. In discipline, though 
the use of the rod was to be avoided, it was recognized as 
the last resort in some cases. It must- therefore be used, „ ^ , , 

Rod to be 

but always in a wise manner and without tyranny and used as last 

resort 

harshness. 

The clothing of the pupils was to be of the "style of 
pious people," possibly of monkish design, each one accord- 
ing to his own rank. Fancy clothing, ornamental dress and Smpie 
headgear were rigorously forbidden, because they bred 
hghtmindedness and were not becoming to learned and 
honorable people. Pupils were not allowed to bear arms, 
and if they came to school bearing them, they were to be To bear no 
taken by the teacher on their arrival and kept for them 
until departure. Books of fables, cards, dice, yellow litera- 
ture, and dancing were all alike forbidden. Instead of these 
pastimes exercises were recommended that were conducive to 
bodily health. Significant breaches in discipline were to be 



26 



FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 



Confession 
of faults 
recom- 
mended 



On the con- 
duct of 
teaching in 
the schools 



Characteris- 
tics of the 
master 



considered by the teachers assembled together, but small 
faults were condoned or perhaps talked over with the pupil 
in secret. Pupils were urged to confess their faults of 
whatever nature, whether against God or the rules of the 
school. A confession, or giving themselves up in this manner 
meant that the punishment would at least be less harsh, and 
possibly waived entirely — depending on the nature of the 
offense. A rule, probably very unjust, at least according to 
our way of thinking, was that a boy who witnessed a wrong 
and did not report it, was punished for it the same as the 
perpetrator of the offense. All that was not mentioned 
specifically by the Count was left to the discretion of the 
preceptors to work out for themselves, and, indeed, with so 
many positive guides they should get along without difficulty. 

The kind of a master will usually determine how the 
school will be conducted. The characteristics of a finished 
and well-prepared master were stated as follows : 

1. He must possess great learning. 

2. He must be industrious and even tempered. 

3. He must know the right waj' and method in which the boj^s are 

to be taught. 

These were scarcely to be questioned, for what could he 
teach, if he himself were an ignoramus; and how would he 
be able to govern others if he were unable to govern himself? 
He must have the disposition of a good student, who, 
though he knows much, is still wiUing to learn; neither must 
he approach the student as a learner, nor think that he has 
taught well if the student be able to recite many verses of 
Greek or Latin, but shall make it his first consideration to 
build a firm foundation of grammar so that the later work in 
language may be secure. "Make progress slowly but surely" 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 27 

is his oft repeated advice, even to those who have the bright- 
est scholars; to those who have the weaker, he says to be 
patient, for they may be easily turned aside from the paths 
of knowledge, if they note that their small knowledge is 
scorned by the teacher whom they are taught to admire 
and respect. 

By presenting the subject in small amounts and with 
great regularity and precision in all the exercises of reading to be made 

, . . . •, , , , . ^ 1 . complete in 

and writmg, it was hoped that, though it was at first distaste- itself 
ful to the pupil, he would come to like it when he reached a 
complete understanding of what he was doing. Everything, 
for the sake of clarity, was to be explained by means of 
examples, and all that was not necessary was to be omitted, 
so that the work when finished would represent a continuous 
chain, in which each hnk was necessary to the whole. 

The content of the literature studied was to be of such ^ 

Content of 

nature that the student would not only learn the language, the work 
but, at the same time, get some valuable information and 
truth. After the orators they were to read the poets, with 
considerable attention to the differences in the style of both, „ , 

.... Orators, then 

in reading and in writing. Great uniformity in teaching was t^e poets 
urged to be observed by all members of the staff. Masters 
were to state the rules always in the same way in grammar 
or in other arts and to continue to use the same authors, for 
in this way great confusion was saved the student, and his 
progress made more rapid and certain. In the reading of 
the authors it was especially necessary that the meaning of „ .. 
every word be perfectly understood, for, as stated above, method 

'' >■ '' ' ' ' required 

the content of the text was considered to be of value to the 
beginner in the language. In the reading of Cicero especial 
attention was given to the form of the writing, and if in the 



Slight mcn- 



28 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

work mention was made of fables of the heathen world — 
which were prohibited in their rooms — they must be related 
in the briefest manner, no further mention being made of 
tion'to be them than was necessary for the understanding of the lesson, 
heathen Special difficulties in the text that were a burden to the pupil 
and not worthy of the time they consumed, were to be 
ommitted by the teachers just as a farmer would drive 
around a stump which could not be removed without too 
great a waste of time and effort. 

The expenditure of a great deal of time in mere repetition 

was deplored, and teachers were enjoined repeatedly not to 

Method with mye long and iuvolved speeches, but rather to make them 

beginners o a r- 7 

brief, that they might be easily grasped, and, if necessary, 
memorized by the pupil. The use of many words to mean 
one or nearly the same thing was discouraged especially in 
the earher classes. However, when the student reached the 
higher classes and learned to use the art of the poets and the 
orators, then study of the usage of many similar words was 
justified. 

Previous to the Ordnung of 1580 there was provision for 
but two classes in the schools at Grimma, Meissen and 
^intodas^ Pforta. It was found, however, that many came into the 
schools who could neither decline Latin nouns nor conjugate 
the verbs properly, and for that reason the Ordnung of 1580 
provided for three classes. Prima, Sekwida and Tertia. A 
survey of each class and its work will be presented. 

Originally it had been intended that those who had had 

the required work for the Tertia of the Partikidarschulen 

''"'»<' would have the required standing for entrance. For that 

reason the work now placed in the Prima of the Fiirsten- 

schulen was made similar to that required in the Tertia of 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 29 

the Partikularschulen. This secured a sort of review of the 
work of the last year of the Partikularschulen, for the student 
who had aheady had it, and furnished an easy step for the 
student who had less advanced standing. The course of 
study for the Prima, as organized in 1580, contained the 
following elements, 

1. The catechism in Latin. Resume of 

2. Declension and conjugation of nouns and verbs for the boys 

who just entered. 

3. Letters of Cicero. 

a. Study of the formation of words. 

4. Memorization of the Mimos publianos and the Canton. 

The works of Cicero and the poets were to be used, not only 
for reading, but as models for practice in the perfecting of 
style.2 

As the Prima was nearly the same as the Tertia of the 
Partikularschule, so the Sekunda was very similar to the 
Quarta of the Partikularschule. The main elements of the 
Sekunda ijiay be summarized as follows : 

* 1. Grammar. 

2. Order of repetitions, lessons, and exercises were to be the same _ „. , 

If in 7 Outline of 

as IS stated for the Partikular schools. the Sekunda 

3. Elegantiis Ciceronis used for study. 

4. Rules of syntax; Profidiam. 

5. Epistles of Cicero, more difficult than those used in the Prima. 

6. At times they were permitted to read the praecepta morum, 

Fabulas Aesopi, Bucolica Virgili, Elegia of Tibullo and from 
the books of Ouidi de Ponto. 

7. Elementary study of Greek language was begun in this class. 

2 For a discussion of the narrow Ciceronian education see Monroe, 
Textbook, pp. 372 ff. and Graves, Student's History, pp. 108 f. 



Tcrtia 



30 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

8. Some of the best students of the class were allowed to study 
arithmetic and music. 

Much of the work of the Tertia was of similar nature to 
those just mentioned, with the exception that it was all 
more advanced. 



1. A repetition of the Grainmatica mentioned above. 
Resume of 2. Complete Grammatica Philippi, as it was written by Philippus 

tll6 COUrSG &S . • 1 1 /~i • 

it was out- and revised by Lameranus. 

lined 2 Authors to be read were: Officia Ciceronis, de Senedute, de 

Amicitia, Quaestiones Tusculanae, Georgica, libri Aeneide, 
Virgin and Odae Horalii. 

4. Greek: Isocratcm ad Demonicum, Theognidem, Aurea Carmina, 

Pythagorae, librum Lliados Honieri primum, Plutarchum de 
liberorum institutione — to be read. Some of the plays of 
Terence and Plautus were to be played each year by the boys, 
chiefly for the purpose of perfecting their speech. In reading 
the Latin and the Greek authors teachers were warned, 
again and again, that if anything was mentioned that was 
not in harmony with the religious faith, they should warn the 
boys against it and then pass it by as quickly as possible. 

5. In this third class was also made a beginning in the study of 

Dialectic and Rhetoric, the manner of teaching being indi- 
cated in the Partikidarschiden. The purpose of Rhetoric 
and Dialectic in this place was to prepare for the study of 
Philosophy in the higher schools, if perchance the pupil should 
advance that far. 

6. To a few of the most advanced the Rektor was required to teach 

the rudiments of Astronomy, so that they might, at least, 
have made a beginning for the work of the higher schools. 
No special attention was to be given to Theology, Law or 
Medicine, except as it occurred in the reading work. 

7. The Hebrew language was to be taught to any of the pupils who 

were inclined to the study of Theology, provided there was a 
teacher who had the knowledge and the desire to teach it. 
This work was relegated to Saturdays, and does not seem to 
have had an important place. 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 31 

In order that knowledge might be kept well in mind, 
great emphasis was placed on the value of frequent repeti- 
tion. Aside from this feature there were held, throughout 
the year at regularly stated intervals, extensive examinations 
to see what progress had been made and to test the memory 
of the pupil. The memory work was not made secure alone 
by the recurrence of examinations, but also by the immense 
amount of work that had to be learned verbatim every day. 
Their argument for the great stress on memory was 
stated in the following: "Of what worth is it to learn a 
thing if one immediately forgets what it is?" Those things Things to be 

-n 1^7- memorized 

to be learned by heart, especially, were the tatectiism, some 
of the Psalms of David, the Evangelia, and the rules of 
grammar, dialectic and rhetoric. In speaking and reading 
great emphasis was placed on the pronunciation. 

The memory work which played so great a part in reading 
and grammar was strongly emphasized also in writing. The 
style of an exercise was good, better or best according to the style of 

•^ D ; ^ o writing 

success with which it aped the style of Cicero or some of the exercise 
poets. It was not an individualistic natural style that was 
desired but the imitation of that of another. So the best 
pupil was the one who could imitate everything most suc- 
cessfully. 

The marking of the compositions was also definitely pre- 
scribed. It was not enough that whatever was absolutely ^^ ^^^^^ 
bad Latin be pointed out to the student, but also that changes of ^^^,F^'- 

^ ' ° cise by the 

be recommended by the teacher that would make a finer master 
harmony of rhythm and sound. This, of course, was neces- 
sary if anyone was to learn to imitate the style of the Latin 
authors. Teachers were also advised that it was not wise to 
call attention to all mistakes at once, for in that way the 



32 FURSTENSCIIULEN IN GERMANY 

pupil might become discouraged; but rather, they must 
emphasize a few at a time, those of most importance, so that 
the student would feel that his work was not all in vain and 
would therefore have a desire to correct his style, when he 
saw it was within his ability to do so. 

It is quite proper at this point, after reviewing the course 
of study and the manner of teaching it, to notice briefly the 
examinations that were given, and the reasons for giving 
them. The reasons which were put forth for them were 
substantially as follows: (1) In order that one might at stated 
intervals take note of his progress and be encouraged thereby; 
(2) the student, being aware that a day of reckoning was to. 
come would devote himself to his studies more zealously 
than otherwise; (3) the examination records were kept and 
thus the weaknesses of the individual student were found 
out and could be given special attention, whether the student 
was promoted or not; (4) examinations were necessary to 
help determine which students they should retain and 
those they should release. It seems from this description 
that the results of the examinations were really put to a good 
use, at any rate, to a better use than at present, when the 
mark is used chiefly to rate the student who often has no 
*theS other record than that made in the examination. The 
of promotion examination was the only basis of promotion provided by 
the Ordnung, though a close record of the other work was 
always kept, as has already been stated. 

SUMMARY 

The Ordnung of 1580 provided for reorganization of 
schools. Special attention was given to the character and 
training of masters, their duties, selection of pupils, super- 



Examina- 



PROVISIONS OF THE ORDNUNG OF 1580 33 

vision, punishment for offenses, and the relationship that 
should exist between members of the teaching staff. The 
purpose of the schools was stated as mental, moral, and 
religious discipline. Studies were extremely formal; a 
uniform method and routine of teaching were required of all. 
Discipline was strict. The required work for the three 
classes. Prima, Sekunda, and Tertia, was outlined in detail. 
Grammar was the basic study, preparing for a study of the 
orators and poets. Greek study was begun in the Sekunda, 
while those who desired could begin Hebrew in the Tertia. 



CHAPTER IV 

Rules Governing Conduct 

We shall now notice some of the rules that were to govern 
Rules gOTern- ^^g ^oys in their every-day activity. If perchance, up to 
activities qqw, oub may have entertained some belief that anything 
was left to choice of the individual, that behef will now be 
dispelled, for, in the Statuta, the minutest details were all 
covered. First, in regard to their attitude toward God and 
their relation to their teachers, they were to cherish a whole- 
some fear and love for the former, being careful lest they 
take His name in vain, and indulging in almost constant 
prayer to Him for the condonement of faults and aid in their 
^''1ude"il various activities. To harmonize all this with the rest of 
wards God ^j^gjj. gchool life, they were to learn, as previously mentioned, 
the most important parts of the Bible and to try to exemplify 
its teachings in their own hves. They must shun all idolatry 
and heresy; and the only way to be sure that they were 
keeping in the narrow way was by prayer morning, night, 
and during the day, that God might keep them to the true 
hght. 

Not only must their relation to teachers be very respect- 
ful and kind, but they must always seek to have a charitable 
Attitude feeling for each other and shall all hve very peaceably to- 
teaXrs gether. No one was to presume to settle his own quarrel 
with another but must report the trouble to the preceptor 
and have it settled in a peaceable manner. The peaceable 
youngster was thus set up as a model for all the others. 



RULES GOVERNING CONDUCT 35 

Each student was a guard on the others, and if one did a 
wrong, another one could warn him and punish him. There towards each 
seems to be a contradiction between this last statement 
and the one mentioned above, that all affairs among the boys 
must be reported to the preceptor; the contradiction, how- 
ever, is only seeming, and in practice there was probably none 
whatever. The boys were probably allowed to settle minor 
matters among themselves, but the more obstinate cases 
had to be brought before the preceptor. In their command obedience 

1 7-17 1 -TT ■ ■ was due to 

over the boys the preceptors, Kektor, and Visttatoj'es or aii teachers 

11 1 1 1 - , andin- 

inspectors were all to be shown the same respect and obe- specters 
dience on the part of the boys. 

Special rules were provided for the boys in church. From 
the trend of these remarks concerning their behavior, it ^ , 

Conduct at 

appears that the orders might indeed have been designed for church 
a Sunday School on the East Side of New York City. The 
important details of the seven injunctions are here set down. 

1. They must attend the church service in a quiet manner. 

2. There shall be no quarrelling with each other about the seats. 

3. They shall sing God's Praises, not only with mouths, but hearts. 

4. They shall listen to the Word of God, as though to God himself. 

5. During the sermon they shall not read, but listen. 

6. They shall prepare themselves to receive the Sacrament of the 

Lord's Supper. 

7. After the sermon is over they shall go quietly from the church, 

and not cause anj^one to stumble. 

The rules for the manifold daily activities and the manner 
of keeping their rooms were scarcely less exacting, and were ^^i^^ for 
very similar to those in many military academies, though leepmg'*^' 
in many affairs they were more strict. For the sake of """^^ 
brevity a resume of the essentials is given: (1) They shall 
rise early in the morning when the bell for prayer is rung. 



36 FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

and have their rooms open; (2) they shall make their beds 
and have their rooms clean and neat; (3) hands and face 
must be washed daily, hair combed, and shoes cleaned; 
(4) they must always have their proper books at hand at 
the proper time; (5) they shall not visit or chat in each other's 
rooms, nor even enter the same; (6) during study hours 
there shall be no singing or commotion of any sort that will 
disturb those who wish to study; (7) shouting and boisterous 
laughter are at all times forbidden; (8) no one shall have a 
burning light in his room; (9) no one shall throw aught out 
of the window; (10) all are required to go to bed each night 
at the appointed time; (11) before going to sleep, one must 
think over the things one has heard, seen, and spoken during 
the day; (12) on moving out one shall not remove anything 
from the room in which he has been. With a few exceptions, 
one might imagine that he had come upon the house-rules 
of a modern fraternity; but the exceptions mentioned would 
be hard to find in the rules of any modern house. 

There was Hkewise a list of rules for conduct at the table 
imels ^^ which a few are mentioned here. (1) At each meal a 
certain one shall offer prayer and another shall read a portion 
of the scripture in order that the minds may be refreshed as 
well as their bodies; (2) they shall be very attentive to the 
reading of the Book; (3) no one shall drink to the health of 
another; (4) no one shall carry meat or bread from the table 
or to school ; (5) further, they shall not gnaw the bones hke 
dogs nor shall they cut the bread to pieces and make schnidt 
hrodt of it. The propensities of boys in the art of cutting and 
carving seem to have been dominant as at present, for 
another rule forbade them to cut the table, plates or table- 
cloth, or mar the furniture in any way whatsoever. 



manners 



RULES GOVERNING CONDUCT 37 

Concerning the rules that were to govern them in classes 
a great deal could be said. Great emphasis was placed on Behavior at 
being at class promptly, listening attentively to the master 
when he was reading, speaking plainly and forcibly when 
called upon to speak, always keeping books, pen, ink, paper, 
and other utensils at hand at the proper time; further was 
urged the keeping of a permanent notebook in which was to 
be kept the previous sayings of the master, which they must 
learn to know themselves, so as to enrich their own speaking 
and writing vocabulary. Their speech, at all times, was to 
be closely guarded, keeping in mind that at some time they 
would have to answer for every word spoken. The Latin 
was to be used at all times, not only before the preceptor but 
among the boys themselves. They were forbidden to tell 
stories of shameful nature and above all were urged to be 
careful to say nothing that would cause a brother to stumble. 

For the sake of convenience to the reader, there is pre- 
sented a summary of certain rules to be followed by the boys a summary 

of rules 

each day. (1) The work of the day shall all be apportioned 
its alloted amount, so one may know what is to be done and 
when to do it ; (2) the first and last hours of the day shall be 
spent in reading the Holy Writ; (3) the boys shall not 
associate with the cooks or other servants; (4) neither at 
night nor in the day shall they absent themselves from the 
school premises; (5) cheap literature shall not be read, neither 
be kept in their possession ; (6) if invited to dances by people 
outside the school, they shall not accept; (7) he shall not be 
away from school over night without the permission of one 
of the masters ; (8) he shall send no secret messenger from the 
school; (9) he shall neither walk nor play except at periods 
when free to do so; (10) shall neither bemottle the walls nor 



38 rURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

scratch the tables; (11) there shall be no playing of cards or 
dice; (12) without special permission they shall not borrow 
money, buy books or clothes; (13) they shall neither play for 
money nor books; (14) no strangers are to be brought to their 
rooms or meals without permission; (15) they shall not talk, 
out of school, about that which happens in school; (16) all 
teachers of the school shall receive due respect; (17) pupils 
shall carry no false keys. 

Duties of the The dutics of the famulus were numerous and varied, 
but he did not for that reason escape the minute regulations. 
The term famulus was applied to one who helped around the 
school, doing certain odds and ends that did not seem to 
belong to any one else. He was evident!}^ a ver}'^ common 
character in the schools of this type. Some of his duties 
were as follows: (1) he must ring the bell at stated periods 
as warning to rise, go to bed, and cease playing; (2) he must 
prepare the tables for the meals; (3) he was also subject to 
all other general regulations of the school ; (4) after the meal 
they were not all allowed to leave at once; (5) he must not 
bring apples, pears and nuts to the school; (6) must not bear 
secret letters from the school. It is also interesting to notice 

■^of /amu?iL^ ^^^ graded series of punishments meted out for his offenses. 
For the first, his act shall be denounced and he shall be 
warned of future punishment; in the second place, he shall 
be made to eat on the earth; (third, regular food and drink 
shall be denied him; fourth, the rod; fifth, the Fidel; sixth, 
the Karzer; seventh, for the last and greatest offense he 
shall be discharged from the school. 

The importance of the position of the inspectors demands 

Inspectors^ that some mention of their work be made. The purpose of 

having inspectors, as was mentioned, was to see that all the 



RULES GOVERNING CONDUCT 39 

recommendations were carried out as desired. The inspec- 
tors, who were to attend to this work of supervision were to ^ 

' 1 1 /• Inspectors 

be named by the secular authority, some being selected from °^J^ed.by 
the nobility and others from the learned classes. Not only authority 
the instruction was to be investigated, but also the economic 
conditions. The management of the kitchen was scrutinized 
as well as the dihgence with which the boys learned their 
lessons. It appears to have been a very thorough inspection, 
if the directions given may be considered a reliable guide. 
Especially was each boy to be examined in regard to the 
progress he had made and whether there was any promise 
for him in the future. 

After having completed the investigation of conditions j^^^^^^j^, 
in the school that he was concerned with, it was the inspec- ^pofts 
tor's duty to prepare a written report for the Oher-Con- 
sistorio. By this means the founders of the schools were 
kept in touch with them, and were enabled to give aid to 
those who needed it and showed by their standing that they 
were worth helping. Where certain conditions in the schools 
needed to be improved, the inspector made this clear in his ingp^^tor 
report and the correction was then made through the proper r°^ien. 
authorities. "^""""^ 

It would, indeed, be difficult to find anywhere a better 
spirit, as far as declarations are concerned, between the ad- 
ministrative and the teaching forces of an educational institu- 
tion. Of course, we can only judge the printed directions, 
but they appear remarkably well devised, both ideally and 
concerning practical details for that period when educational 
systems were in such a disorganized state. In the Ordnungen 
issued, many different types of schools were mentioned, and 
for all were given the same specific kind of directions, leaving 



40 FtiRSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 

no opportunity for avoiding a duty because of too general 
instructions. 

SUMMARY 

The conduct of pupils was regulated by means of defi- 
nitely prescribed rules, which left nothing to individual 
choice. Special lists of rules guided them at church, in their 
rooms, at school, and at mealtime. The duties of the 
famulus were Ukewise described in detail. Reverence 
toward God and unquestioning obedience to teachers was 
required. The secular authority named school inspectors 
who, after making thorough investigation concerning instruc- 
tion and the status of the school generally, were required to 
make a written report, with recommendations, to the Oher- 
Consistorio. 



CHAPTER V 



Summary: Later Development 



In the foregoing pages we have seen that many new types 
of educational institutions came into existence after the 
Reformation; among these were Klosterschulen, Fiirsten- 
schulen, Partikularschulen, and writing schools. Foremost 
among the factors at work which brought about this increased 
educational activity was the changed conception of the 
purpose and scope of education. The new purpose was to 
train leaders for the church and state, and to insure the 
spread of Christian knowledge by having all children taught 
to read. In its scope education was to reach all alike; rich 
and poor; noble and lowest countryman. 

This conception of education, making necessary the pro- 
vision of free education for native children, brought with it 
many difficulties. Chief among them was the problem of 
support for the new schools. As the Cathohc Church had 
possessed many foundations, suitable for schools, these were 
in many cases taken over in Protestant countries for tlie use 
of the newly founded schools; such was the case with many 
of the Kloster- and Fiirstenschulen. In 1544 the Emperor 
took official steps whereby he gave Protestants permission to 
make use of the church properties within their territory. 
Herein may be seen the beginning of co-operation of church 
and state to provide the benefits of education for all citizens. 

The Fiirstenschulen of Saxony^ were modelled, to a great 
degree, after the Klosterschulen of Wiirttemberg. The 

' Among other Fiirstenschulen, which have not been mentioned, but 
which follow much the same outline as those treated more fully, are 
those at Tilsit, and Lyck in Prussia, Heilsbronn, Wiirttemberg, and 
others mentioned such as: Ansbach; Coburg; Stettin; Joachimstal. 



New con- 
ception of 
education 



Resultant 
difficulties; 
support; use 
of church 
properties 



42 FURSTENSCHULEx\ IN GERMANY 

latter admitted boys to study for the ministry from twelve 
to fourteen years of age, preparing them for entrance to the 
Paedagogium; after leaving this institution they entered the 
University of Tubingen. Tuition was free for a few who 
passed certain examinations. Discipline was very strict; 
regulation clothing had to be worn. 

The function of the Landes- or Fiirstenschulen was broader 
than that of the Klosterschulen, being to furnish an education 

Function " 

of Fiirsien- for Capable boys whether they sought to enter the service of 
the church or the state. Poor boys were admitted; it was 
only necessary that they have superior ability. Strict dis- 
cipline, plain food, simple clothing, and restricted privileges 
characterized the life of the schools. Details of the schools' 
equipment, number of teachers, and number of boys to be 
admitted were all given careful attention in the Ordnungen. 
Detailed furthermore, detailed consideration was given to: the Rek- 

infhe'orders ^^^' ^^^ natural aptitudes, preparation, and duties as foster- 
issued father and teacher; the preceptors, their mastery of seK, and 
duty of instructing boys in the knowledge of the Holy Spirit; 
private pupils; choice of superior boys for the schools; 
expulsion of inefficient teachers; lesson periods; the exact 
manner of supervising work; expulsion of stupid and lazy 
pupils; study of the school regulations; manner of treating 
cases for discipline; inspection of quarters; religious instruc- 
tion; content of studies; special methods with beginners and 
those who were more advanced; organization of classes and 
studies to be covered in each; correction of exercises by the 
master ; aims of examinations and many other items of simi- 
lar importance. ' 

It is stated that the schools should definitely accomphsh 
these things : 



summary: later development 43 

a. instill true faith in and knowledge of God ; 

b. furnish mental and moral discipline; be obtained 

c. and teach the boys to become learned and reasoning Bchoois 

men. 
The masters should be conspicuous for : 
a. great learning; 
6. industrious habits and even temper; . ., 

Attributes 

c. and knowledge of the best methods of teachmg boys, of the master 
In addition to a rather detailed discussion of the points 
mentioned above, explicit regulations are given regarding: 
pupils' religious attitude; respect for teachers; harmonious 
living together; behavior during religious services; order in behavior 
their rooms and routine duties of the day; manners in the 
dining hall and in the class room. 

Inspection of schools was given an important place. 
Inspectors were chosen by the secular head and after inspec- gupgryision 
tion were required to submit written reports to the Oher- 
Consistorio. Realizing, as we do today, the great value 
derived through systematized supervision we are better able 
to evaluate the benefits arising from its early institution in 
the Fiirstenschulen. 

Later Development 

As previously stated, the chief purpose of this monograph 
is to present some of the more important features of the 
Fiirstenschulen at the time of their establishment, thus mak- 
ing clear some of the practical results of the Reformation. 
It will, however, be of interest to students of the history of 
education to note briefly the direction of their development, 
and also the nature of the present-day institutions whose 
progenitors they were. 



44 FURSTENSCIIULEN IN GERMANY 

Originating at a time when the classical tendency was 
the marks beginning to assert itself, and being in such a large measure 
ciaasicai the result of the influence of men like Luther, Melanchthon, 
and Camerarius, we need not be surprised to find these 
institutions continuing to exert an influence in favor of 
classical studies. The feeling of intimate relationship be- 
tween this type of school and the labors of Luther, as well as 
the influence of classical ideals, is recognized in the following 
lines, taken from a toast proposed to St. Afra in 1863. 

St. Afra, Luthers Schelten 
Hat Deinen Grund gelegt, 
Hellas und Roma's Welten 
Dein stolzes Bauwerk tragt. 

Even until As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century the old 
F iirstenschulen stiW clung tenaciously to the traditional cur- 
riculum, a minute and formal study of the classics, laying 
great emphasis on the imitation of forms employed by classic 
authors. And in them was nurtured an antagonistic attitude 
towards the new humanism found in Gymnasien of the nine- 
teenth century. 

Student life in the Furstenschulen during recent years is 
still very similar to that at the time of their foundation, in 
that the minute regulations, characteristic of boarding 

Present stu- scliools, are everywhere in evidence. Their nearest counter- 
dent hfe ' "^ ... 1 (• J 
similar to part among English and American mstitutions mav be found 

the old * o o - 

in the Great Public Schools or the numerous private prepara- 
tory schools and military academies which furnish residence 
for their students. Especially have they developed parallel 
to the Enghsh Public Schools in regard to curriculum; both 
have adhered faithfully to the traditional classical course as 
the best means for fitting their charges for social usefulness. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 45 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Flathe, Theodor. Sanct Afra. Leipzig. 1879. 

Flemming, P. Geschichte von Schulpforta. Naumburg, 1900. 

Graves, F. P. A Student's History of Education. Macmillan, 1915. 

Jortin, John. The Life of Erasmus. Three volumes. London, 1808. 

Kirchenordnung zu Braunschweig und Liinehurg. Wolfenbiittel, 1569. 

Kirchenordnung zu Meckelnburg. Witteberg, 1554. 

Kirchenordnung zu Witteberg. Witteberg, 1559. 

Kirchner, C. Die Landesschide Pforta. Naumburg, 1843. 

Leach, A. F. English Schools at the Reformation. Constable, 1896. 

Mertz, G. Das Schidwesen der deutschen Reformation im 16. Jahrhun- 

dert. Heidelberg, 1902. 
Monroe, P. Textbook in the History of Education. Macmillan, 1905. 
Painter, I. V. N. Luther on Education. Lutheran PubUshing Society. 

Philadelpliia, 1889. 
Paulsen, F. German Education. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 
Richter, A. L. Kirchenordnungen. Leipzig, 1871. 
Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools. Longmans, 1905. 
Sdchsische Kirchenordnung. Leipzig, 1580. 
Sdchsische Kirchenordnung. Leipzig, 1568. 
Sehling, J. E. Die Evangelischen Kirchenordnungen. Five volumes. 

Leipzig, 1911. 
Vorbaum, R. Evangclische Kirchenordntmg. Giitersloh, 1864. 



46 



FURSTENSCHULEN IN GERMANY 



INDEX 



Aim of education, in Kloster- 

schulen, 12 f.; in Fiirstenschulen, 

13 f., 24. 
Augustus, 17; recommendations 

of, 18. 
Camerarius, important work of, 

15. 
Catechism, source for religious 

education, 24. 
Church property, seized by nobles, 

6 f.; use of, for schools approved 

by Emperor, 8. 
Conduct, rules for, 34 ff. 
Count Moritz, 11, 14. 
Curriculum, 23 f., 27 ff. 
Discipline, in Klosterschulen, 12; 

in Fiirstenschulen, 25 f . 
Education, changing conception 

of, 2 f., 41; free for native chil- 
dren, 3. 
Examinations, uses of, 32. 
Famulus, duties, punishments, 

etc., 38. 
Formalism, characteristic, 24, 31. 
Free scholars, 12. 
Fiirstenschulen, in Saxony, 13; 

equipment, 15; function of, 42. 
Inspection, of rooms, 23; of 

schools, 39 f . 
Inspectors, duties of, 38 f . 
Klosterschulen, in Wurttemberg, 

11; regulations in the, 12. 
Latin, to be used always, 23. 



Luther, on education, 4f.; urges 
use of church property for 
schools, 6. 

Masters, paid by civil authority, 
3. 

Melanchthon, 4 f . 

Method, 18, 27 f., 31. 

Organization, of classes, 28 ff. 

Preceptors, duties, characteris- 
tics, etc., 18, 22, 26, 31; in- 
efficient to be removed, 20. 

Prima, resume of, 29. 

Private pupils, not allowed, 19. 

Pupils, careful selection of, 20 f . ; 
some asked to leave, 21. 

Rektor, duties, qualifications of, 
19 ff. 

Religious education, 24. 

Schools, new types established, 1; 
origin of, 1 f.; union of church 
and state in affairs of, 9. 

School day, length of, 21. 

Sekunda, resume of, 29. 

Statuta, 21 f. 

Supervision of schools, by Catho- 
lic Church, 8f.; new super- 
vision, 9, 21. 

Suppo ^ of schools, 1 f., 41; source 
of in Catholic Church, 4; 
sources of in EvangeUcal 
churches, 5 f . 

Tertia, resume of, 30. 

Visitatores, duties of, 22. 



ii. 



